Black Hawk, born Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak, is best known as a Sauk war chief and leader of the effort to contest a supposed treaty between the Sauk and Fox nations and then-Governor of the Indiana territory William Henry Harrison that ceded 50 million acres of tribal lands to the United States. Known at the St. Louis Treaty or the Treaty of 1804, this treaty did not follow any of the typical strict protocol, bypassing steps that included an invitation to meet with the Tribal Council, a full meeting of tribal men, women, and children to decide on the treaty terms, and the standard signing event where speeches would be given and wampum belts exchanged. Instead, Harrison claimed that a valid agreement was made between himself and five head men from the Sauk and Fox tribes; however, Harrison would have known that this violated the standard treaty protocol and that the five men he dealt with had no authority to cede tribal lands. No official record or journals were kept, but scholars speculate that the men who signed the treaty did not understand what they had agreed to.
Map of the territory ceded in the St. Louis Treaty
Black Hawk had been antagonistic to whites settling in the territory belonging to his people for many years and fought on the side of the British against the US during the War of 1812, hoping to push white Americans out of Saukl land. He became the leader of a group of Sauks and Foxes who refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Treaty of 1804, and in 1832 he led a band of warriors in an attempt to reclaim land along the Rock River in Illinois. This became known as Black Hawk’s War.
Map of Black Hawk's path during the Black Hawk War
Black Hawk’s band initially succeeded in battles against the Illinois militia, but as the weeks wore on, the US forces grew while backup and supplies expected by Black Hawk from the British and other tribes never arrived. Suffering setbacks, Black Hawk retreated northward and in the final battle at the Bad Axe River in what is now Wisconsin, most of the Native Americans, trying to escape back across the Mississippi, were slaughtered. Black Hawk survived but surrendered soon after this devastating massacre. The ruthlessness of the Black Hawk War led the nearby tribes to flee Westward, leaving the majority of the former Northwest Territory open to white settlers.
Black Hawk's band fleeing the Battle of Bad Axe
In the custody of the US following the war, Black Hawk and other chiefs were taken to Jefferson Barracks in St. Louis, Missouri where they spent the fall and winter often confined in chains until they were sent east in April of 1833. During their captivity, Black Hawk and five others traveled from city to city in the eastern US and were eventually shipped back west to St. Louis from Washington. Along their stops in many US cities, Secretary of War Lewis Cass intended to impress upon them the strength and power of the American people. Large crowds gathered to see and hear them, though sometimes these crowds were hostile. At times, the group was visited by various artists, sitting for sketches and paintings (which may show them in chains at their own insistence).
Eventually, Black Hawk was held at Fort Armstrong on Rock Island, Illinois. During his final days there, he shared the story of his life with an interpreter and a newspaper editor, Antoine LeClair and J.P. Patterson, who within a year had edited and published Life of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-She-Kia-Kiak or Black Hawk. While this work is generally accepted as Black Hawk’s biography, and is the first biography of a Native American to be published in the United States, it should not be considered entirely accurate. It’s likely that Black Hawk’s account was edited and rearranged to appease the audience that Patterson imagined for the book, and no raw transcript of the conversations exist.
In the final years of his life, Black Hawk spent most of his time in Iowa with his family and among the Sauks. He is widely revered among Native Americans today for his steadfast resolve to protect his homeland and fight against illegal treaties.
“How smooth must be the language of the whites, when they can make right look like wrong, and wrong like right.” – Black Hawk
Statue of Black Hawk at Black Hawk State Historic Site
Holata Micco (alternately spelled: Halpatter-Micco, Halbutta Micco, and Halpuda Mikko, meaning Alligator Chief), known by whites as Chief Billy Bowlegs, was one of the last Seminole resisters during the Seminole Wars. The name “Billy Bowlegs” was given by white settlers living in present-day Florida, and might be an alternate spelling of Bolek, the name of a previous Seminole chief. Chief Bowlegs was born into a family of chiefs.
President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act in 1830 and ordered the relocation of American Indians from their native lands, including the Seminole, to territories in the west. Bowlegs refused to comply, becoming a prominent figure of resistance. During the Second Seminole War (roughly, 1835 to 1842), After the treacherous killing of Osceola - and the death or capture of several other Seminole leaders- Bowlegs and his band of 200 warriors became some of the most prominent fighters surviving at the time hostilities ended officially on 14 August 1842.
Larger numbers of white settlers and surveyors found their way to Florida by the 1850s, encroaching on Seminole lands. Even so, the Seminles lived in relative peace until 1855 when The Third Seminole War began following provocation from white settlers. Bowlegs and his band employed a successful guerilla-style warfare that the US Army was unable to subdue. In 1858, a Western Seminole Chief, Chief Wild Cat, convinced Bowlegs and his band to relocate voluntarily with a payment from the US government. Bowlegs and his followers relocated to modern-day Arkansa where he became a leading chief, and he and his daughters became prominent land holders.
Chief Leschi was a chief of the Nisqually Indian Tribe of southern Puget Sound, Washington, primarily in the area of the Nisqually River and its delta at the base of Puget Sound, a watershed rich in fish and game.
Known for his role in the Yakima War and general resistance to participating in the selling of Tribal land, Chief Leschi was a staunch defender of Nisqually lands and of his people’s traditional way of life and sovereignty. In 1854, Leschi was appointed by the governor of Washington Territory to serve as a representative of the Nisqually and Puyallup tribes. Under pressure from the United States government, the tribes ceded much of their land and agreed to relocate to reservations. Leschi rejected this agreement, arguing that the rocky land designated for the Nisqually reservation was unsuitable for growing food and cut off from the river around which the tribe’s diet and culture revolved. Salmon in particular has always been a foundation of the Nisqually culture as well as a staple of their diet.
In 1855, the Yakima Wars broke out. Leschi was a leader of his people during this time and was eventually charged with the murder of two men who fought against his tribe for the Washington Territorial Volunteers. Leschi’s supporters argued that he could not be charged with muder over a death that took place during a recognized war. Leschi was executed by hanging by the US government in 1857. In 2004, the Washington state legislature passed resolutions stating that Leschi was wrongly convicted and executed, and vacated his sentence. He was exonerated by a unanimous vote.
Regarding the Nisqually more broadly, one of the defining aspects of the Nisqually culture is the importance of art. While the Nisqually were not as bold with their village decorations as some of the northern tribes that carved totem poles and painted the fronts of their homes, the Nisqually incorporated there art into the useful items they used regularly, such as baskets, boxes, clothing, and weapons. They wove baskeys from cedar roots and incorporated other barks and wild grasses to create colorful patterns. They would carve animal designs on their tools as a way to indicate the powerful characteristics of their owner.
Chief Ouray was acknowledged by the United States government as a chief of the Ute and he traveled to Washington, D.C. to negotiate for the welfare of the Utes. Ouray met with Presidents Lincoln, Grant, and Hayes and was called the man of peace because he sought to make treaties with settlers and the government, and was a constant force for peace. He tried to secure a treaty for the Uncompahgre Ute - who wanted to stay in Colorado - but was unsuccessful. His band was forced to a reservation in Utah in 1881. Chief Ouray had been a negotiator during the Treaty of Conejos (1863), wherein the Utes exchanged the loss of 50% of their land for the right to live in Western Colorado in perpetuity.
Ouray was born in Taos, New Mexico where he learned to speak Ute and Apache languages, sign language, Spanish, and English. This would come in handy later in his life as an adept negotiator, a trait that earned him the moniker “The Man of Peace”.
In 1850, Ouray and his brother left Taos to join their father in Colorado. Here, Ouray became a sub-chief of the Tabegauche and was one of the best hunters, riders, and fighters in the band. At the age of 27 in 1860, Ouray rose to a position of chief among the Utes. He was concerned by the number of white settlers who had moved into their ancestral lands and believed that making treaties to protect his people was their best way forward. Over his time as chief, Ouray met with US Presidents Lincoln, Grant, and Hayes in efforts to negotiate on behalf of his people. He tried to secure a treaty for the Uncompahgre Ute - who wanted to stay in Colorado - but was unsuccessful. His band was forced to a reservation in Utah in 1881. Chief Ouray had been a negotiator during the Treaty of Conejos (1863), wherein the Utes exchanged the loss of 50% of their land for the right to live in Western Colorado in perpetuity. Unfortunately, the US government kept returning to Ouray to request more and more land, eventually obtaining much of the Ute’s traditional and sacred lands and forcing many Utes out of Colorado.
1880 in Washington D.C. -- Ouray and others from the Ute tribe traveled here to negotiate a treaty, resulting in removal of many Utes from Colorado to present-day Utah. Ouray passed away soon after this trip. Seated from left to right: Ignacio of the Southern Utes, Carl Shurz, Secretary of the Interior, Ouray and his wife, Chipeta. Standing are Woretsiz and General Charles Adams.
An Odawa war chief, Pontiac, given name Obwaandi’eyaag, is best known for his influence in the eponymous war against the British in the present-day Great Lakes region of the US. Pontiac was dissatisfied with British policies following the British victory in the French and Indian War.
From 1763 to 1766 he led Native Americans in an armed struggle against the British, primarily laying siege to Fort Detroit in an effort to capture it. The war began with Pontiac and 300 followers, eventually amassing more than 900 warriors from multiple tribes. As word of the conflict spread, the war expanded beyond Fort Detroit. Despite his band’s success defeating the British in the Battle of Bloody Run, Pontiac was unable to take Fort Detroit.
Chief Pontiac gathered under a tree with others in his counsel
Pontiac’s leadership in the war that bears his name is somewhat in question, and modern day scholars creid multiple chiefs and war leaders across several Tribes for their leadership in the uprising. Some felt he claimed more authority than a Chief traditionally was permitted, and in his final years his authority was diminished. There can be no doubt, however, that he was a leader of immense influence and that he was a central figure in defense of the Odawa and other Tribe’s homelands.
No authentic images of Pontiac exist, rather the images that persist are artists’ interpretations.
Given the Native American name Hasanoanda and later known as Donehogawa, Ely Samuel Parker wore many hats during his lifetime, among them U.S. Army officer, interpreter, Seneca sachem, engineer, and tribal diplomat.
Parker was born on the Tonawanda Indian Reservation of the Senecas, one of the tribes of the great Iroquois Confederation called The Six Nations. Parker was educated at a missionary school and was bilingual in both Seneca and English, one example of the way he bridged his Seneca identity with the culture of the broader United States.
Parker’s childhood home had such visitors Lewis Henry Morgan, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, and John Wesley Powell. His family aided these non-Native scholars in understanding Hodenosaunee culture, which they used in their writings.
Parker worked at a legal firm and intended to become a lawyer, but he was not allowed to sit for the bar as Native Americans were not considered United States citizens until the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924. Parker eventually attended Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute where he studied engineering. As an engineer, Parker contributed to upgrades and maintenance of the Erie Canal, among other projects.
During the American Civil War, Parker was commissioned a lieutenant colonel where he served as adjutant and secretary to General Ulysses S. Grant. He wrote the final draft of the Confederate surrender terms at Appomattox. Later in his career, Parker rose to the rank of brevet brigadier general. When General Grant was elected as US president, he appointed Parker as Commissioner of Indian Affairs, the first Native American to hold that post. In this capacity he personally saw to it that warfare against Tribes in the West were reduced, and instituted Grant’s Peace Policy towards Tribes.
Little is known about Frank C. Pierce, the first Native American to compete for the United States in the Olympic Games. A Seneca Indian from the state of New York, Pierce competed for the Pastime Athletic Club of New York City. He was a track and field athlete and distance runner. Pierce had two brothers who were also long-distance runners.
Pierce entered the marathon at the St. Louis Olympic Games in 1904, but he did not finish, and may not have contended. He was given no note in the St. Louis newspaper summaries of the race. However, Pierce paved the way and served as inspiration for a future famous competitive runner, Tom Longboat who was elected to Canada’s Sports Hall of Fame.
Like the other tribes of the Six Nations of the Iroquois, the Senecas have a rich history surrounding runners who were an important part of the community – summoning councils, relaying intelligence between nations and warning of potential danger. Runners from the Six Nations kept beaded wampum with them to signify their official positions and the authority of their messages. Additionally, they would carry a pouch of ground, dry corn mixed with maple sugar as a snack to replenish their energy. In the modern day Iroquois Confederacy, chiefs continue to designate “runners”, using the term for those who serve as a conduit for essential business across the Confederacy. As a community leader, a runner is a respected position in the Confederacy.
An Ohlone ethnologist, Isabel Meadows was the last fluent speaker of the Rumsen Ohlone language. Prior to Spanish settlers’ arrival, the Rumsen Ohlone language was commonly spoken along the Central Coast of modern-day California.
In her later years, Meadows worked with an ethnologist named John Peadbody Harrington from the Smithsonian Institute to document the culture and language of the Rumsen people in the Monterey, Carmel, and Big Sur regions of California. They did extensive fieldwork together, then traveled to Washington D.C. when Meadows was in her eightie where she lived for five years to continue their work preserving the Rumsen language. Meadows also shared stories of her culture and tribal memory. Most of their notes remain unpublished. Meadows died at the age of 100 in 1939.
There are eight languages within the Ohlone people. The groups of the Ohlone were an indiginous people of California with a population of roughly 400-500 people among at least five villages across their territory. Along with the Esselen language, Rumsen became a crucial native language spoken at the Mission San Carlos Borroméo de Carmelo. Efforts to revive the Rumsen language have recently begun with the work of Meadows and Harrington serving as a foundation to recover the language. In fact, the Costanoan Rumsen Carmel Tribe has started work on a revised English - Rumsen dictionary.
Part of the Ojibwe community, Jane Johnston Schoolcraft, given name Bamewawagezhikaquay (translted to The Sound the Stars Make Rushing Through the Sky) lived in the 1800s in the upper peninsula of the Michigan Territory. Schoolcraft became the first known Native American and female writer and poet to write in both her native language and English.
Schoolcraft’s father, John Johnston, was a fur trader from Belfast, Ireland, and her mother, Ozhaguscodaywayquay, was the daughter of a prominent Ojibwa leader and chief. The couple were notable members in the Euro-American and Ojibwa communities of the Sault Ste. Marie area of modern-day Michigan, and they each passed their language and cultural heritage down to Jane.
During her lifetime, Jane did not publish her work, but there has been much renewed interest in her writing. She has been recognized as “the first Native American literary writer, the first known Indian woman writer, the first known Indian poet, the first known poet to write poems in a Native American language and the first known American Indian to write out traditional Indian stories.” Jane’s writing helped preserve the stories and poetry of the Ojibwe, but she also wrote often about her family and private life, exploring the complexity of a bicultural heritage. She did not indulge in any stereotypes or romanticized notions regarding indiginous people and life, rather she memorialized her people through her poetry and storytelling, often employing Euro-American literary techniques.
Jane met Henry Rowe schoolcraft in 1822, and they two were married in 1823. Henry worked an ethnologist and published work concerning Native Americans with a focus on the Ojibwe, based on the stories and knowledge he gathered from Jane’s family. Henry Wadsworth Longfllow used these writings a source for the famous poem “The Song of Hiawatha”.
John Tortes “Chief” Meyers was born in Riverside, California in 1880 to John Meyer, a German German-American saloon keeper and Felicite Meyer, a Cahuilla who made and sold baskets. During his youth, Meyers spent time on the Santa Rosa Reservation and in a Native American village called Spring Rancheria on the edge of Riverside. He attended Riverside High School. He helped the activist Helen Hunt Jackson in her research for the story, “Ramona”, serving as her guide.
Meyers was 28 years old when he entered the major leagues, but he shaved two years off his true age before signing, a common occurrence in baseball even today. By 1910 at age 30, he was the first string catcher for the New York Giants and went on to be a part of four National League championship teams, three with the Giants and one in Brooklyn. From an article in The Press Enterprise by Jim Alexander, “He set a World Series record for assists by a catcher, 12 in a six-game series in 1911. He led the league in on-base percentage (.441) in 1912, when he hit .358, and would have been second in the league in OPS that year (.918) if that stat had existed. He finished in the top 10 in the NL’s MVP voting in 1911, 1912 and 1913, averaged 118 hits and 16 doubles a year over a five-year stretch from 1910-1914, and had nine triples, unheard of for a catcher, in 1912.”
John Tortes Meyers at the World Series
Meyers, who was proud of his Native American heritage, was given the nickname “Chief” by the media (a common nickname for any indiginous person at that time) but preferred to be called Jack. After retiring from baseball in 1917, he became chief of police for the Mission Indian Agency, overseeing several reservations across Southern California. A year after his death, Meyers was inducted into the American Indian Hall of Fame.
King Calusa was paramount Chief of the large Calusa chiefdom, which covered most of southwestern Florida and the Florida Keys. From his capital on Mound Key in Estero Bay near Fort Myers, King Calusa reigned over approximately 50 villages and 100,000 people stretching over a vast area. He was Chief at the time of contact with the Spanish under Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. When Avila arrived in 1566, tension eventually arose. After Chief Calusa attempted to assassinate Avila, he himself was eventually killed. Several places in the region still retain his name.
Laura Cornelius Kellogg was a leader, author, orator, activist and visionary. She spent her life as a spokesperson and leading figure , arguing for tribal sovereignty, land claims and cultural renaissance. She was a founder of the Society of American Indians. She was a descendant of several Chiefs. Highly educated, she lived and traveled in several European countries and across the United States, fighting for local Tribes and diving into whatever cultures surrounding her. Her advocacy for Native peoples led her to be called the “Indian Joan of Arc.” During her support of women’s suffrage, she noted: ""It is a cause of astonishment to us that you white women are only now, in this twentieth century, claiming what has been the Indian woman’s privilege as far back as history traces.” SHe also wrote Our Democracy and the American Indian. Her advocacy and strong words led her to be hindered by accusations of misuse of funds or agitation. Her positions created divisions and often alienated government figures who found her approaches abrasive. Nevertheless, Kellogg was a powerhouse and relentless believer in speaking truth and defending Native peoples.
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Little Turtle is one of the most famous Native American military leaders of all time. In the 1790s, Mihšihkinaahkwa led a confederation of native warriors to several major victories against U.S. forces in the Northwest Indian Wars, sometimes called “Little Turtle’s War”, particularly St. Clair’s defeat in 1791, wherein the confederation defeated General Arthur St. Clair, who lost 900 men in the most decisive loss by the U.S. Army against Native American forces. He fought on the side of the British up until their defeat in the American Revolutionary War, and continued to defend Miami and other Native Nation’s territories after the Americans created the “Northwest Territory.” Eventually Little Turtle determined that peace was the only way forward for Native people, and he traveled frequently east to meet with several US presidents.
Lucy Tayiah Eads was the first woman to serve as principal chief of the Kaw Nation. Eads was trained as a nurse at Haskell Institute. In 1924 Eads delivered a petition to the Commission of Indian Affairs in Washington, D.C., to reestablish the Kaw Agency. She was invited to the 1929 presidential inauguration for Herbert Hoover and Charles Curtis, vice president from Kansas, and fellow Kaw. Eads made education a priority for her people.
Lucy Thompson was a Native American author known for her book To the American Indian: Reminiscences of a Yurok Woman. Written in 1916, the book is intended to preserve her people’s stories. She was a champion of her people, bringing to light the genocide of Native Californians, as well as over-fishing by non-Natives.
Lyda Conley was the first Native American woman to argue a case before the U.S. Supreme Court. She was also the first woman admitted to the Kansas Bar Association.
Her case appears to be the first in which “a plaintiff argued that the burying grounds of Native Americans were entitled to federal protection.” At the heart of the case was her Tribe’s The Huron Indian Cemetery, which was under threat of purchase for development. She spent her entire life defending the cemetery, and is buried there.
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Her autobiography was one of the earliest firsthand accounts of the experience of a Native American woman. Mountain Wolf Woman, Sister of Crashing Thunder, details seventy-five years of Native American life and the role of women in native cultures, and was seen as an important contrast to her brother Sam Blowsnake’s book from thirty-five years earlier.
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Openchancanough was the supreme Chief of the Powhatan Confederacy from about 1618 until his death. He was the brother of Chief Powhatan and the uncle of Pocahontas. In the earlier part of his life he was a warrior and war chief. Although he was known as being strongly opposed to European settlements, he did not hold this position at the beginning of European arrival. In September 1607 he was one of the Powhatan sub-chiefs who gave food to the starving Pilgrims at Jamestown. He is also famous for having captured Captain John Smith. In 1618 -after becoming the de facto ruler of the entire Powhatan Confederacy, he began planning a long-term strategy to expel the English from his territories. He and his people had watched the English grow more greedy, commit atrocities and usurp more and more land without asking. Opechancanough led the Powhatan in the Second and Third Anglo-Powhatan Wars, where at least 1/3rd of English people living in New England were killed. He represents the first Chief to create a concerted effort to rid the land of outsiders, which continued across the modern United States throughout the next two and a half centuries.
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Running Eagle was a woman warrior. From an early age she preferred male roles. During a hunting expedition in which her group was attacked by Assiniboine warriors, she saved her father’s life. In later years she joined war parties. During her first one she captured 11 Crow horses. Although there was strong resistance against a woman participating in raids, she was nonetheless eventually invited to participate in men’s ceremonies and warrior societies. During a raid against the Flathead, she was targeted and killed. She remains one of the most famous women in Blackfeet history.
Sitting Bull was a spiritual and war leader revered by his People. He led his band during a time of constant change and upheaval, refusing to engage in selling Tribal land or signing treaties. He is well known for his involvement in Red Cloud’s War, the Battle of the Greasy Grass (Little Big Horn), and many other key and decisive battles during the 1860’s and 70’s. Sitting Bull later was involved in Buffalo Bill Cody’s Wild West Show, traveling extensively and performing for large audiences. He was assassinated while being arrested for his acknowledgment of the Ghost Dance.
“I wish it to be remembered that I was the last man of my tribe to surrender my rifle.”
Sophia Alice Callahan was a novelist and teacher. Her novel, Wynema, A Child of the Forest (1891) is thought to be the first novel written by a Native American woman. Her novel was also the first to be written and published in Indian Territory (Oklahoma). Her book was called a “reform novel”, identifying many wrongs suffered by Native Americans in United States society.
Gvnagadoga, also known as Standing Turkey, was the First Beloved Man of the Cherokee after his father (of the same name) died in 1760. He held this title until 1761. During this time he led the Cherokee in a war against the English, in what is known as the Anglo - Cherokee War. He is also noted for being a member of several delegations to visit London and Spanish Louisiana, seeking refuge from American encroachment for his people.
Viola Jimulla was the Chief of the Prescott Yavapai tribe . She is considered the first contemporary Native American female Chief of a Western US Tribe. Under Jimulla’s leadership, the Prescott Yavapai Tribal Council was formed to better ensure the people’s voice in their own governing. Her leadership helped the Yavapais achieve better living conditions and more modern facilities than most other tribes.
Weetamo grew up in the Pocasset’s largest and main village, Mettapoisett, on the shores of Cape Cod. She was the daughter of Corbitant, sachem of the Pocasset tribe. She later became sunksqua (female sachem) herself. During her lifetime, she had five husbands: Winnepurket, Wamsutta (Alexander), Quequequanachet, Petonowit, and Quinnapin. Weetamoo had responsibilities as a bead-worker, making the wampum which told the story of her people and what they were presently enduring. This was a highly-respected position. In 1675, she joined in King Phillip’s War, helping to attack colonists with her 300 warriors. At her command, they made multiple raids against colonial settlements. In 1676 her encampment was surprised, and she drowned in the Taunton River trying to escape. King Phillip had also been killed just before this. Knowledge of these two deaths largely broke the spirit of resistance. Some of Weetamo’s relatives were sold shortly after this into slavery, and sent to the West Indies. Weetamo remains a much-revered example of Native American resistance and cultural pride.
William Terrill Bradby was born on the Pamunkey Reservation, and served as a Union soldier during the Civil War. He was also a land guide and scout for the Army of the Potomac. Even after VIrginia declared itself to be part of the Confederacy, Bradby continued to clandestinely work for the Union. He died around 1905 on the same reservation he was born on. The Pamunkey did not gain federal recognition until 2016, living in their traditional homeland for 400 years since contact with no real security.
Zitkala-Ša was a writer, editor, translator, musician, educator, and political activist. She wrote several works chronicling her struggles with cultural identity, and the pull between the majority culture in which she was educated, and the Dakota culture into which she was born and raised.She was co-founder of the National Council of American Indians in 1926, which was established to lobby for Native people’s right to United States citizenship and other civil rights they had long been denied.
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